React Performance Optimization: From Virtual DOM to Concurrent Rendering

Introduction

React's declarative model is a productivity superpower. You describe what the UI should look like, and React figures out how to make it happen. But this abstraction has a cost: React does a lot of work behind the scenes, and if you don't understand that work, you can accidentally write code that makes React do far more than necessary.

This deep dive covers React's rendering pipeline from first principles. We'll explore the Virtual DOM and reconciliation algorithm, understand exactly when and why components re-render, master React 18's concurrent features, and preview the upcoming React Compiler. By the end, you'll have the mental model to diagnose and fix any React performance issue.

Performance in Context

Before we dive in, a word of caution: premature optimization is the root of all evil. Most React apps are fast enough without any optimization. The patterns in this article should be applied when:

You have measured a performance problem (not guessed)
The problem affects user experience (not just benchmarks)
You've identified the specific cause (not just "it feels slow")

With that said, understanding these concepts is valuable even if you never need to optimize. It makes you a better React developer and helps you write performant code by default.

Understanding React's Rendering Pipeline

To optimize React, you need to understand what React actually does when your component "renders." Spoiler: it's more nuanced than you might think.

Rendering vs. Committing

A common misconception is that "rendering" means "updating the DOM." In React, these are two distinct phases:

Render Phase: React calls your component functions to compute what the UI should look like. This produces a Virtual DOM tree (React elements). This phase is pure—no side effects, no DOM mutations.

Commit Phase: React compares the new Virtual DOM with the previous one (reconciliation), computes the minimal set of changes, and applies them to the real DOM.

This distinction matters because the Render phase can be interrupted and restarted (in Concurrent React), but the Commit phase is synchronous and cannot be interrupted.

The Virtual DOM and Reconciliation

React maintains a lightweight JavaScript representation of the DOM called the Virtual DOM. It's essentially a tree of JavaScript objects describing the UI structure:

class="code-comment">// What JSX compiles to
<div className=class="code-string">"card">
  <h1>Hello</h1>
</div>
class="code-comment">// Becomes this object (simplified)
{
  type: class="code-string">'div',
  props: {
    className: class="code-string">'card',
    children: {
      type: class="code-string">'h1',
      props: { children: class="code-string">'Hello' }
    }
  }
}

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When state changes, React:

Calls your component functions to create a new Virtual DOM tree

Compares it with the previous tree (this is "reconciliation" or "diffing")

Computes the minimal set of DOM operations needed

Applies those changes to the real DOM

React Rendering Pipeline

The Reconciliation Algorithm

Comparing two arbitrary trees has O(n³) complexity—unusable for any real application. React uses clever heuristics to achieve O(n) complexity:

Heuristic 1: Elements of different types produce different trees. If you change a

to a , React won't try to patch it—it destroys the entire subtree and rebuilds.

Heuristic 2: The key prop hints which elements are stable across renders. This is crucial for lists.

Heuristic 3: Components of the same type are assumed to produce similar trees. React reuses the instance and updates props.

Let's see these in action:

class="code-comment">// class="code-number">1. Different element types = replace entire subtree
<div>                  <span>
  <Counter />    →       <Counter />  class="code-comment">// Counter is remounted!
</div>                 </span>
class="code-comment">// class="code-number">2. Same element type = update props, keep instance
<div className=class="code-string">"a">    <div className=class="code-string">"b">
  <Counter />     →      <Counter />  class="code-comment">// Same Counter instance
</div>                 </div>
class="code-comment">// class="code-number">3. Keys optimize list reconciliation
class="code-comment">// Without keys: O(n) operations class="code-keyword">for list changes
class="code-comment">// With keys: O(class="code-number">1) class="code-keyword">for moves, insertions, deletions
class="code-comment">// BAD: Using index ="code-keyword">as key
{items.map((item, index) => (
  <Item key={index} {...item} />  class="code-comment">// Causes unnecessary re-renders
))}
class="code-comment">// GOOD: Using stable unique ID
{items.map((item) => (
  <Item key={item.id} {...item} />  class="code-comment">// Efficient updates
))}

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The Key Prop Deep Dive

The key prop is one of the most misunderstood React concepts. It's not just for suppressing warnings—it fundamentally changes how React reconciles lists.

Without keys, React matches elements by position. If you insert an item at the beginning of a list, React thinks every item changed (because they all shifted position) and re-renders everything.

With keys, React matches elements by key. Inserting an item at the beginning means React knows existing items just moved—it reuses their DOM nodes and state.

Critical Rule: Keys must be stable, unique, and predictable. Using array index as key defeats the purpose because indices change when items are added or removed.

Preventing Unnecessary Re-renders

Now that we understand when React renders, let's explore how to prevent unnecessary renders. But first, let's be precise about what "unnecessary" means.

Understanding When Components Re-render

A component re-renders when:

Its state changes (via setState, useState setter, etc.)

Its parent re-renders (unless the component is memoized)

A context it consumes changes (any component using useContext re-renders)

Notice what's NOT on this list: props changes. A component re-renders when its parent re-renders, regardless of whether its props actually changed. This is a common misconception.

Why does React do this? Because checking whether props changed (deep equality) can be expensive and often unnecessary. React optimizes for the common case where props do change when the parent re-renders.

class="code-comment">// This child re-renders every time parent renders!
class="code-keyword">function Parent() {
  class="code-keyword">const [count, setCount] = useState(class="code-number">0);
class="code-keyword">return (
    <div>
      <button onClick={() => setCount(c => c + class="code-number">1)}>
        Count: {count}
      </button>
      <ExpensiveChild />  {class="code-comment">/ Re-renders on every click! /}
    </div>
  );
}

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The Real Cost of Re-renders

Before you start memoizing everything, understand what a re-render actually costs:

Function execution: React calls your component function

Element creation: JSX creates React element objects

Reconciliation: React compares old and new elements

DOM updates: Only if the Virtual DOM changed

Steps 1-3 are usually cheap. Step 4 is expensive, but it only happens when the Virtual DOM actually changes. A component can re-render 100 times without touching the DOM if its output doesn't change.

The question isn't "is this component re-rendering?" but "is this re-render causing expensive work?" That expensive work might be:

Complex calculations during render
Large lists being recreated
Heavy child components being re-rendered
Actual DOM updates

React.memo - The Memoization HOC

React.memo is a higher-order component that memoizes your component. It performs a shallow comparison of props and skips re-rendering if props haven't changed.

class="code-comment">// Basic memoization
class="code-keyword">const ExpensiveChild = memo(class="code-keyword">function ExpensiveChild() {
  console.log(class="code-string">'ExpensiveChild rendered');
  class="code-keyword">return <div>I am expensive</div>;
});
class="code-comment">// Custom comparison class="code-keyword">function
class="code-keyword">const UserCard = memo(
  class="code-keyword">function UserCard({ user, onSelect }: Props) {
    class="code-keyword">return (
      <div onClick={() => onSelect(user.id)}>
        {user.name}
      </div>
    );
  },
  (prevProps, nextProps) => {
    class="code-comment">// Return true class="code-keyword">if props are equal(skip re-render)
    class="code-keyword">return prevProps.user.id === nextProps.user.id &&
           prevProps.onSelect === nextProps.onSelect;
  }
);

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Understanding Shallow Comparison

React.memo uses shallow comparison by default. This means:

Primitives (strings, numbers, booleans) are compared by value
Objects and arrays are compared by reference

This is why object and function props often break memoization—they're created fresh on each render, so their reference changes even if their content is identical.

useMemo and useCallback

These hooks help maintain stable references across renders:

useMemo: Memoizes a computed value. Returns the same value if dependencies haven't changed.
useCallback: Memoizes a function. Returns the same function reference if dependencies haven't changed.

They're essentially the same thing—useCallback(fn, deps) is equivalent to useMemo(() => fn, deps).

class="code-keyword">function SearchResults({ query, filters }: Props) {
  class="code-comment">// ❌ BAD: New array created every render
  class="code-keyword">const filteredResults = data.filter(item =>
    item.name.includes(query) &&
    filters.every(f => item.tags.includes(f))
  );
class="code-comment">// ✅ GOOD: Only recompute when dependencies change
  class="code-keyword">const filteredResults = useMemo(() =>
    data.filter(item =>
      item.name.includes(query) &&
      filters.every(f => item.tags.includes(f))
    ),
    [data, query, filters]
  );
class="code-comment">// ❌ BAD: New ="code-keyword">class="code-keyword">function created every render
  class="code-keyword">const handleClick = (id: string) => {
    onSelect(id);
  };
class="code-comment">// ✅ GOOD: Stable ="code-keyword">class="code-keyword">function reference
  class="code-keyword">const handleClick = useCallback((id: string) => {
    onSelect(id);
  }, [onSelect]);
class="code-keyword">return filteredResults.map(item => (
    <Item
      key={item.id}
      item={item}
      onClick={handleClick}  class="code-comment">// Stable reference
    />
  ));
}

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The Memoization Decision Framework

When deciding whether to memoize, ask these questions:

Is this component expensive to render? If it's a simple component, memoization overhead might exceed the render cost.

Does this component re-render often with the same props? If props usually change, memoization just adds comparison overhead.

Is the parent's render expensive? Sometimes it's better to optimize the parent than memoize the child.

Are the props stable? If props are recreated every render (objects, arrays, functions), you need useMemo/useCallback in the parent too.

When NOT to Memoize

Memoization isn't free. Every useMemo and useCallback has overhead: storing the memoized value, comparing dependencies, and the complexity it adds to your code. Here are anti-patterns:

class="code-comment">// ❌ Over-optimization: Simple calculations
class="code-keyword">const doubled = useMemo(() => count * class="code-number">2, [count]);  class="code-comment">// Overkill
class="code-comment">// ❌ Over-optimization: Simple components
class="code-keyword">const SimpleText = memo(({ text }: { text: string }) => (
  <span>{text}</span>  class="code-comment">// Comparison cost > render cost
));
class="code-comment">// ❌ Unstable dependencies defeat memoization
class="code-keyword">function Parent() {
  class="code-comment">// This object is new every render!
  class="code-keyword">const config = { theme: class="code-string">'dark', size: class="code-string">'large' };
class="code-keyword">return <Child config={config} />;  class="code-comment">// memo is useless
}
class="code-comment">// ✅ Fix: Memoize the ="code-type">object
class="code-keyword">function Parent() {
  class="code-keyword">const config = useMemo(() => ({
    theme: class="code-string">'dark',
    size: class="code-string">'large'
  }), []);
class="code-keyword">return <Child config={config} />;
}

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React 18 Concurrent Features

React 18 introduced Concurrent React—a fundamental change to how React schedules and renders updates. The key insight is that not all updates are equally urgent. Typing in an input should feel instant, but updating a complex dashboard can happen in the background.

Concurrent React enables React to:

Interrupt rendering to handle more urgent updates
Keep the UI responsive during expensive renders
Prepare new UI in the background before showing it

Let's explore the specific features.

Automatic Batching

Batching means combining multiple state updates into a single re-render. React has always batched updates in event handlers, but React 18 extends this to all contexts:

class="code-comment">// React class="code-number">17: Multiple re-renders
async class="code-keyword">function handleClick() {
  class="code-keyword">const data = await fetchData();
  setLoading(false);  class="code-comment">// Re-render class="code-number">1
  setData(data);      class="code-comment">// Re-render class="code-number">2
  setError(null);     class="code-comment">// Re-render class="code-number">3
}
class="code-comment">// React class="code-number">18: Single re-render(automatic batching)
async class="code-keyword">function handleClick() {
  class="code-keyword">const data = await fetchData();
  setLoading(false);  class="code-comment">// Batched
  setData(data);      class="code-comment">// Batched
  setError(null);     class="code-comment">// Batched → Single re-render
}
class="code-comment">// Opt-out class="code-keyword">if needed
class="code-keyword">import { flushSync } class="code-keyword">from class="code-string">'react-dom';
class="code-keyword">function handleClick() {
  flushSync(() => {
    setCount(c => c + class="code-number">1);  class="code-comment">// Immediately re-renders
  });
  class="code-comment">// DOM is updated here
  console.log(document.getElementById(class="code-string">'count').textContent);
}

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useTransition - Non-blocking Updates

useTransition is the most important concurrent feature for application developers. It lets you mark certain state updates as "transitions"—updates that can be interrupted if something more urgent happens.

The classic use case is search: when the user types, updating the input is urgent (they need to see what they typed). But filtering a large list can happen in the background. If the user types another character before filtering completes, we should abandon the old filter and start a new one.

class="code-keyword">function SearchPage() {
  class="code-keyword">const [query, setQuery] = useState(class="code-string">'');
  class="code-keyword">const [results, setResults] = useState([]);
  class="code-keyword">const [isPending, startTransition] = useTransition();
class="code-keyword">function handleChange(e: ChangeEvent<;HTMLInputElement>) {
    class="code-comment">// Urgent: Update input immediately
    setQuery(e.target.value);
class="code-comment">// Non-urgent: Can be interrupted
    startTransition(() => {
      class="code-comment">// This won't block typing even with class="code-number">10,class="code-number">000 results
      class="code-keyword">const filtered = filterLargeDataset(e.target.value);
      setResults(filtered);
    });
  }
class="code-keyword">return (
    <div>
      <input value={query} onChange={handleChange} />
      {isPending && <Spinner />}
      <ResultsList results={results} />
    </div>
  );
}

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useTransition vs useDeferredValue

Both hooks defer updates, but they serve different purposes:

useTransition: You control the state setter. Wrap the non-urgent setState call.
useDeferredValue: You receive a value (e.g., from props). Defer its updates.

Use useTransition when you own the state. Use useDeferredValue when you receive the value from elsewhere.

useDeferredValue - Deferring Re-renders

useDeferredValue accepts a value and returns a "deferred" version that lags behind during rapid updates. This is perfect when you receive a value from outside (props) and can't control when it updates.

class="code-keyword">function SearchResults({ query }: { query: string }) {
  class="code-comment">// deferredQuery lags behind query during rapid updates
  class="code-keyword">const deferredQuery = useDeferredValue(query);
class="code-comment">// Show stale content class="code-keyword">while computing new results
  class="code-keyword">const isStale = query !== deferredQuery;
class="code-comment">// This expensive computation uses the deferred value
  class="code-keyword">const results = useMemo(
    () => filterLargeDataset(deferredQuery),
    [deferredQuery]
  );
class="code-keyword">return (
    <div style={{ opacity: isStale ? class="code-number">0.7 : class="code-number">1 }}>
      {results.map(item => <Item key={item.id} item={item} />)}
    </div>
  );
}

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Suspense for Data Fetching

class="code-comment">// Modern data fetching with Suspense
class="code-keyword">function ProfilePage({ userId }: { userId: string }) {
  class="code-keyword">return (
    <Suspense fallback={<ProfileSkeleton />}>
      <ProfileDetails userId={userId} />
      <Suspense fallback={<PostsSkeleton />}>
        <ProfilePosts userId={userId} />
      </Suspense>
    </Suspense>
  );
}
class="code-comment">// Using React Query with Suspense
class="code-keyword">function ProfileDetails({ userId }: { userId: string }) {
  class="code-keyword">const { data } = useSuspenseQuery({
    queryKey: [class="code-string">'user', userId],
    queryFn: () => fetchUser(userId),
  });
class="code-keyword">return <div>{data.name}</div>;
}
class="code-comment">// Streaming SSR with Suspense
class="code-comment">// server.tsx
class="code-keyword">import { renderToPipeableStream } class="code-keyword">from class="code-string">'react-dom/server';
app.get(class="code-string">'/', (req, res) => {
  class="code-keyword">const { pipe } = renderToPipeableStream(<App />, {
    bootstrapScripts: [class="code-string">'/main.js'],
    onShellReady() {
      res.setHeader(class="code-string">'content-type', class="code-string">'text/html');
      pipe(res);  class="code-comment">// Stream HTML as components resolve
    },
  });
});

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Code Splitting and Lazy Loading

Route-based Splitting

class="code-keyword">import { lazy, Suspense } class="code-keyword">from class="code-string">'react';
class="code-keyword">import { Routes, Route } class="code-keyword">from class="code-string">'react-router-dom';
class="code-comment">// Lazy load route components
class="code-keyword">const Dashboard = lazy(() => class="code-keyword">import(class="code-string">'./pages/Dashboard'));
class="code-keyword">const Settings = lazy(() => class="code-keyword">import(class="code-string">'./pages/Settings'));
class="code-keyword">const Analytics = lazy(() =>
  class="code-keyword">import(class="code-string">'./pages/Analytics').then(module => ({
    default: module.AnalyticsPage  class="code-comment">// Named class="code-keyword">export
  }))
);
class="code-keyword">function App() {
  class="code-keyword">return (
    <Suspense fallback={<PageLoader />}>
      <Routes>
        <Route path=class="code-string">"/dashboard" element={<Dashboard />} />
        <Route path=class="code-string">"/settings" element={<Settings />} />
        <Route path=class="code-string">"/analytics" element={<Analytics />} />
      </Routes>
    </Suspense>
  );
}

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Component-level Splitting

class="code-comment">// Lazy load heavy components
class="code-keyword">const HeavyChart = lazy(() => class="code-keyword">import(class="code-string">'./components/HeavyChart'));
class="code-keyword">const RichTextEditor = lazy(() => class="code-keyword">import(class="code-string">'./components/RichTextEditor'));
class="code-keyword">function Dashboard() {
  class="code-keyword">const [showChart, setShowChart] = useState(false);
class="code-keyword">return (
    <div>
      <button onClick={() => setShowChart(true)}>
        Show Analytics
      </button>
{showChart && (
        <Suspense fallback={<ChartSkeleton />}>
          <HeavyChart data={analyticsData} />
        </Suspense>
      )}
    </div>
  );
}
class="code-comment">// Preload on hover class="code-keyword">for better UX
class="code-keyword">function NavLink({ to, children }: Props) {
  class="code-keyword">const handleMouseEnter = () => {
    class="code-comment">// Preload the route component
    class="code-keyword">const route = routes.find(r => r.path === to);
    route?.component.preload?.();
  };
class="code-keyword">return (
    <Link to={to} onMouseEnter={handleMouseEnter}>
      {children}
    </Link>
  );
}

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Virtualization for Large Lists

class="code-keyword">import { useVirtualizer } class="code-keyword">from class="code-string">'@tanstack/react-virtual';
class="code-keyword">function VirtualizedList({ items }: { items: Item[] }) {
  class="code-keyword">const parentRef = useRef<HTMLDivElement>(null);
class="code-keyword">const virtualizer = useVirtualizer({
    count: items.length,
    getScrollElement: () => parentRef.current,
    estimateSize: () => class="code-number">50,  class="code-comment">// Estimated row height
    overscan: class="code-number">5,  class="code-comment">// Render class="code-number">5 extra items outside viewport
  });
class="code-keyword">return (
    <div
      ref={parentRef}
      style={{ height: class="code-string">'400px', overflow: class="code-string">'auto' }}
    >
      <div
        style={{
          height: class="code-string">${virtualizer.getTotalSize()}px,
          position: class="code-string">'relative',
        }}
      >
        {virtualizer.getVirtualItems().map((virtualItem) => (
          <div
            key={virtualItem.key}
            style={{
              position: class="code-string">'absolute',
              top: class="code-number">0,
              left: class="code-number">0,
              width: class="code-string">'class="code-number">100%',
              height: class="code-string">${virtualItem.size}px,
              transform: class="code-string">translateY(${virtualItem.start}px),
            }}
          >
            <ItemRow item={items[virtualItem.index]} />
          </div>
        ))}
      </div>
    </div>
  );
}

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The React Compiler (React 19+)

The React Compiler automatically applies optimizations, reducing the need for manual memoization.

class="code-comment">// Before: Manual memoization required
class="code-keyword">function TodoList({ todos, filter }: Props) {
  class="code-keyword">const filteredTodos = useMemo(
    () => todos.filter(todo => matchesFilter(todo, filter)),
    [todos, filter]
  );
class="code-keyword">const handleComplete = useCallback(
    (id: string) => completeTodo(id),
    [completeTodo]
  );
class="code-keyword">return filteredTodos.map(todo => (
    <TodoItem
      key={todo.id}
      todo={todo}
      onComplete={handleComplete}
    />
  ));
}
class="code-comment">// After: React Compiler handles it automatically
class="code-keyword">function TodoList({ todos, filter }: Props) {
  class="code-comment">// No useMemo needed - compiler detects and optimizes
  class="code-keyword">const filteredTodos = todos.filter(todo =>
    matchesFilter(todo, filter)
  );
class="code-comment">// No useCallback needed - compiler maintains reference stability
  class="code-keyword">const handleComplete = (id: string) => completeTodo(id);
class="code-keyword">return filteredTodos.map(todo => (
    <TodoItem
      key={todo.id}
      todo={todo}
      onComplete={handleComplete}
    />
  ));
}
class="code-comment">// Enable React Compiler in next.config.js(Next.js class="code-number">15+)
module.exports = {
  experimental: {
    reactCompiler: true,
  },
};

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Performance Profiling

React DevTools Profiler

class="code-comment">// Wrap components to measure render time
class="code-keyword">import { Profiler } class="code-keyword">from class="code-string">'react';
class="code-keyword">function onRenderCallback(
  id: string,
  phase: class="code-string">'mount' | class="code-string">'update',
  actualDuration: number,
  baseDuration: number,
  startTime: number,
  commitTime: number,
) {
  console.log({
    id,
    phase,
    actualDuration,  class="code-comment">// Time spent rendering
    baseDuration,    class="code-comment">// Estimated time without memoization
  });
}
class="code-keyword">function App() {
  class="code-keyword">return (
    <Profiler id=class="code-string">"App" onRender={onRenderCallback}>
      <Dashboard />
    </Profiler>
  );
}

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Custom Performance Monitoring

class="code-comment">// Hook to detect slow renders
class="code-keyword">function useRenderTime(componentName: string, threshold = class="code-number">16) {
  class="code-keyword">const renderStart = useRef(performance.now());
useEffect(() => {
    class="code-keyword">const renderTime = performance.now() - renderStart.current;
class="code-keyword">if (renderTime > threshold) {
      console.warn(
        class="code-string">Slow render: ${componentName} took ${renderTime.toFixed(class="code-number">2)}ms
      );
class="code-comment">// Report to monitoring service
      analytics.track(class="code-string">'slow_render', {
        component: componentName,
        duration: renderTime,
      });
    }
  });
renderStart.current = performance.now();
}
class="code-keyword">function ExpensiveComponent() {
  useRenderTime(class="code-string">'ExpensiveComponent');
  class="code-comment">// ... component logic
}

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Conclusion

React performance optimization is a deep topic, but it boils down to a few key principles:

The Mental Model

Rendering isn't the problem—unnecessary work is. A component can re-render thousands of times without performance issues if each render is fast and doesn't cause DOM updates.

Measure before optimizing. Use React DevTools Profiler to identify actual bottlenecks. Don't guess—you'll often be wrong.

Optimize at the right level. Sometimes the fix is restructuring components, not adding memoization. State colocation (keeping state close to where it's used) often eliminates entire classes of re-render issues.

The Optimization Toolkit

React.memo: Prevent re-renders when props haven't changed. Use for expensive components with stable props.

useMemo/useCallback: Maintain stable references for objects and functions passed to memoized children.

useTransition/useDeferredValue: Keep the UI responsive during expensive updates. Essential for search, filtering, and data-heavy UIs.

Code Splitting: Don't load code the user doesn't need yet. Split by route and by component.

Virtualization: For lists over ~100 items, render only what's visible.

The Future: React Compiler

The React Compiler (in development, available in React 19+) automatically applies memoization. It analyzes your code at build time and inserts useMemo, useCallback, and memo where beneficial.

This doesn't mean you can ignore performance—understanding these concepts helps you:

Debug when things go wrong
Handle cases the compiler can't optimize
Write code that's easier for the compiler to optimize

Final Advice

Start simple. Write straightforward React code. When you hit a performance problem:

Measure to identify the bottleneck

Understand why it's slow (re-renders? Expensive calculations? DOM updates?)

Fix with the lightest-weight solution

Verify the fix actually helped

Performance optimization is a skill you develop over time. Build the mental model, learn the tools, and practice. Your users will thank you.